A. What are Discourse Markers? (A Quick Review)
Discourse markers are words or phrases that act like "road signs" in a text. They manage the flow of information and show the reader how ideas are related. This lesson provides a practical guide to the markers used for three of the most common and essential functions:
- Addition: Adding a new, similar idea.
- Contrast: Introducing an opposing or different idea.
- Result: Showing the consequence of a previous idea.
B. Markers of Addition
Use these to build on a point, add information, or provide another example.
| Formality | Marker | Grammatical Note & Example |
|---|---|---|
| Informal | and, also, too, as well | He's a talented singer. He plays the guitar as well. (Note: too and as well usually go at the end of a sentence). |
| Neutral | What's more, In addition | What's more, the new software is much easier to use. (Used at the start of a sentence, followed by a comma). |
| Formal | Moreover, Furthermore | The report is incomplete. Moreover, it contains several factual errors. (Very common in academic and business writing). |
| Emphatic | Not only... but also... | Not only* is he a great leader, but he also* has a vision for the future. (Requires subject-verb inversion in the first clause). |
C. Markers of Contrast
These are essential for showing different sides of an argument, exceptions, or unexpected outcomes.
1. Direct Opposition & Concession
| Marker | Grammatical Note & Example |
|---|---|
| but, however | The job is interesting, but the salary is low. / The job is interesting. However, the salary is low. |
| although, even though | Followed by a clause (subject + verb). * Although he studied hard, he failed the exam.* |
| despite, in spite of | Followed by a noun or -ing form. Despite the rain, we enjoyed the festival. / In spite of feeling tired, she finished the race. |
| nevertheless, nonetheless | Formal. Used to introduce a contrasting point that is true in spite of the previous point. The risks are high. Nevertheless, the potential rewards are even higher. |
2. Comparing Two Different Things
| Marker | Example |
|---|---|
| while, whereas, whilst | My brother is very quiet, whereas I am very talkative. |
| On the one hand... on the other hand... | On the one hand*, the city offers more job opportunities. On the other hand*, the cost of living is much higher. |
| In contrast, By contrast | The south of the country is hot and dry. In contrast, the north is cooler and wetter. |
D. Markers of Result
Use these to show that one thing is the consequence of another.
| Formality | Marker | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Informal | so | I was tired, so I went to bed early. |
| Neutral | As a result | There was a major traffic jam. As a result, I was late for my appointment. |
| Formal | Therefore, Consequently | The company has been losing money for months. Therefore, a new strategy is required. / He forgot to set his alarm. Consequently, he missed his flight. |
| Very Formal | Thus, Hence | The two lines of evidence converge; thus, we can be confident in our conclusion. |
E. Common Errors to Avoid
-
Using a double contrast marker.
- ✗ Although he was late, but he apologized.
- ✓ Although he was late, he apologized.
- ✓ He was late, but he apologized.
-
Using the wrong grammatical structure.
- ✗ Despite he was tired, he kept working.
- ✓ Despite being tired, he kept working.
- ✓ Although he was tired, he kept working.
-
Confusing 'so' and 'because'. So introduces a result; because introduces a cause.
- ✗ I am happy, so you are here. (Incorrect logic)
- ✓ I am happy because you are here.